Healthy vs Harmful National Identities
Issue 171: This July 4th, we explore different forms of national identity and how they shape democracy, solidarity, and collective responsibility in profoundly different ways.
For many Americans, July 4th is a day of fireworks, barbecue, and flags rippling in the wind—a day of shared national pride. But as that pride has waned in recent years, it’s also a time to ask: What does it mean to be proud of one's country? Today’s newsletter unpacks healthy and harmful forms of national identification and how they shape the world in profoundly different ways.
The Many Faces of National Pride
What it means to be proud of one’s country depends on how we think about our national identity. And national identity, as it turns out, can take many forms. One key distinction lies between healthy, secure national identity—rooted in civic values, solidarity, and genuine care for one’s fellow citizens—and a defensive, superficial one, more concerned with appearances and external recognition than with what the country stands for or how its people are actually doing. A prominent example of the latter is called national narcissism.
In Caravaggio’s famous painting of Narcissus, a handsome youth falls in love with his own reflection. According to Roman poet Ovid, Narcissus is unable to tear himself away and eventually dies of his passion for himself. National narcissism is essentially individual narcissism on the group level. National narcissists* are obsessed with their own nation’s image, even to their own detriment.
Just like individual narcissists, who have an exaggerated sense of self-importance and grandiosity, national narcissists believe that their nation is exceptional and entitled to special treatment.
Beneath all this bravado, however, lies a belief that is deeply fragile. National narcissists crave constant external validation. If others fail to sufficiently recognize and praise their nation’s grandiosity, they become resentful. While true patriots don’t shy away from constructive criticism of their own nation, national narcissists are hypersensitive to any sort of critique and perceived disrespect (don’t you dare to laugh at their nation!). They also frequently fear getting the shorter end of the stick, even when they are objectively privileged. This helps explain why national narcissists often support pulling out of international collaborations, like the European Union.
Importantly, national narcissism and healthy national identity do have some similarities. For example, both share a focus on the nation and a generally positive view of the national group. But when we look more closely and tease apart their defining traits, the differences are striking.
In one study, researchers asked whether people would be willing to conspire against fellow citizens, such as wiretapping them. At first, it seemed that people who strongly identified with their nation were quite inclined to conspire. But here’s the twist: once the researchers disentangled the healthy form of national identification from the narcissistic one, they found that people who felt a genuine bond with their nation were actually less willing to conspire against fellow citizens. National narcissists, on the other hand, were still ready to wiretap.
The Zeitgeist of National Narcissism
What was once a quieter undercurrent is now deeply woven into the fabric of American politics. In a new study led by Stefan Leach, we analyzed Twitter posts from members of the 117th U.S. House of Representatives to examine how different forms of national identity may surface in political communication. We found that tweets expressing healthy national identity—highlighting national pride and positive feelings about America—were common across party lines and generated more likes. In other words, healthy identity rhetoric is generally appealing across the political spectrum.
But what about messages expressing national narcissism? Tweets that portrayed America as exceptional and entitled were also common—particularly among Republicans. Over 75% of Republicans used national narcissistic rhetoric at least once, compared to 36% of Democrats. And those tweets really resonated with their audiences: they received 60% more likes. Democrats, however, didn’t see any bump in engagement from using national narcissistic rhetoric. In fact, our follow-up study suggests this kind of language could even harm Democrats at the polls.
The rise of national narcissism, however, isn’t unique to America. National narcissistic sentiment has seeped into political life across many countries and has particularly benefited right-wing populists. Researchers, for example, have linked national narcissism to support for the right-wing populist Law and Justice party in Poland and to voting in favor of Brexit in the UK.
The Impact of National Narcissism on Beliefs and Behaviors
It is the defensive, image-obsessed form of national identity, not healthy national identification and true patriotism, that poses a threat to a democratic and flourishing future. Research finds that national narcissists are supportive of anti-democratic principles and activities, including spying on citizens and challenging legitimate elections. They are even more likely to endorse military aggression if it serves to maintain the privilege and glorious image of the nation. They also tend to be more skeptical of science and environmental protection efforts. In contrast, a healthy national identity can strengthen people’s trust in science and their commitment to caring for the environment.
Since national narcissists are constantly concerned that others are undermining their country’s special standing, they are more susceptible to conspiracy theories, particularly those targeting outgroups. This mindset is also linked to greater hostility and prejudice toward marginalized groups, and lower solidarity with refugees who are unfortunately often portrayed as a threat to one’s nation’s status and prosperity.
In one large-scale study, we found that national narcissism was associated with stronger belief in COVID-19 conspiracies in 53 of the 56 countries we examined. In contrast, a healthy national identification was linked to lower belief in such theories. Visit our website to explore this data further and see which countries scored highest!
The relationship between belief in COVID-19 conspiracy theories and national narcissism across 56 countries (Sternisko et al., 2021).
The Solidarity Gap
Ultimately, national narcissism isn't about the nation. It’s about the self. Research suggests that national narcissism may be a way by which people try to compensate for personal frustrations like feeling helpless. This can explain why national narcissists don’t just lack solidarity with outgroups. They are also quick to turn on their fellow citizens or abandon their country altogether if it benefits them.
The pandemic showed us how this can play out. While some leaders championed working together across national borders, others saw collaboration as a sign of weakness—something national narcissists can’t tolerate. In one set of studies, we found that national narcissists supported reckless public health policies during the COVID-19 pandemic, because these policies helped their country save face. For instance, British national narcissists tended to oppose the EU–UK ventilator partnership, even when they knew that opting out could put fellow Brits’ health at risk. Amid mounting public pressure, UK leaders eventually decided to opt out.
The story looks quite different for those with a healthy, secure national identity. In a study across 67 countries, we found that these individuals were more likely to adhere to public health guidelines during the COVID-19 pandemic. When people feel a genuine bond with their nation, they’re more willing to step up and make sacrifices.
Results from our study on national identity and health behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic (Van Bavel, Cichocka, et al., 2021). Healthy national identification, but not national narcissism, was linked to social distancing and physical hygiene.
Healthy, Secure National Identity Builds a Stronger Society
It is important to recognize the difference between healthy and defensive forms of national identity. A strong national identity in and of itself is not problematic. Quite the contrary. Feeling a genuine bond and commitment to one’s nation can strengthen social ties and greatly benefit society. Embracing a healthy national identity can reduce polarization, foster tolerance, galvanize civic engagement, and encourage solidarity, prosocial behavior, and altruism.
A megastudy of over 30,000 Americans tested the effectiveness of 25 interventions to reduce partisan animosity, support for undemocratic practices, and support for partisan violence. Our intervention, designed to foster a positive national identity, was the third most effective strategy at reducing partisan animosity. It also increased support for democratic practices (Voelkel et al., 2024). Reminding partisans of their shared American identity and values can be a powerful catalyst for democratic renewal.
Effectiveness of 25 interventions tested in Voelkel et al. (2024)’s megastudy aimed at reducing partisan animosity. The effect of our national identity intervention is highlighted in red.
July 4th offers Americans an opportunity to reflect on their nation and their relationship to it. Despite deepening division about where the country is heading, the upcoming holiday is a chance to refocus on what unites rather than divides Americans, to reaffirm shared values, and to nurture true patriotism. How Americans come to understand their national identity today will profoundly shape the country’s future.
This column was drafted by Anni Sternisko, with edits from Jay Van Bavel.
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*National narcissism exists on a continuum and shouldn't be pathologized. For simplicity, we refer to people who score high on national narcissism as “national narcissists.” Please also note that national narcissism is part of a broader concept known as collective narcissism. People can be narcissistic about any group they belong to, whether it’s their nation, religion, gender identity, or profession. We’ll explore the broader concept of collective narcissism in a future newsletter.
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Well written but we are the most diverse large population --340 mil--nation. I have spent time in Finland where there are 5 million people who all speak a very difficult language unknown elsewhere; all look alike; and the majority are NON believers. Dopey religion is also dead in Scandinavia. WE are the exact opposite. We are no shared values except for our gluttony, fatness and love of religion and money.